After about 10 years of study, GOAL/QPC
developed this wheel as a summar of its teachings on Japanese Total Quality
Management TQM which is called Total Quality Control (TQC) in Japan
1.
Problem-solving
·
Continuous Improvement and Standardization
·
Individual/Team Problem Solving Roles/Responsibilities
·
7 Quality Control Tools
2.
Planning
·
Strategic Planning and Alignment
·
Individual/Team Planning Roles/Responsibilities
·
7 Management/Planning Tools
3.
Cross
Functional Improvement
·
Quality Function Deployment
·
Individual/Team Cross Functional Roles/Responsibilities
·
Seven Creativity Tools
1.
Problem Solving
Total Quality Management is based on the
belief that the people who are closest to the job best understand what is wrong and how to fix it. Management has
the responsibility
Ford learned this lesson dramatically in
the mid 1980's. They sub-contracted the
So the first phase in total quality
requires systematically putting all employees to work
The continuous improvement uses a process that follows the
plan-do-check-act cycle.
The situation is analyzed and the improvement is planned (Plan).
The improvement is
Then data is gathered to see how
the new approach works (Check or
The improvement is either
implemented or a decision is made to try
This process of continuous
improvement makes it possible to
The processes that produce good results are standardized and documented.
The
If the process is changed the
documentation is
Without standardization',
variation is increased rather than reduced.
Standardization was given a major boost in the early 1990's
when ISO 9000 became
An important part of improvement is the
Team work. Good team activity includes a
.·
Individuals
and Teams Roles and Responsibilities
Teamwork is critical to effective
continuous improvement and standardization.
Individuals can support the team by taking
responsibility for the success of the team
The work of the team is accomplished by creating work plans, having
productive
A team must know when its work is done: it has accomplished
its purpose; took steps
Successful teams also must master potential problems:
1- the area of conflict - some
2- power - the boss is on the team and people don't speak openly;
3- correct use of experts - who speak clearly and don't dominate;
4- focus - people stay on the subject;
5- participation - all
participate in an equal fashion;
6, follow-through - everyone does
his or her assignments.
Individuals and Teams Roles
and Responsibilities
Teamwork is critical to effective
continuous improvement and standardization.
Individuals can support the team by taking
responsibility for the success of the team
following through on commitments,
contributing to discussions, actively listening to
others, getting your message across
clearly, giving useful feedback, accepting feedback
easily.
In getting the team off to a good start,
you need to agree on a purpose, identify people
who will be effected by the work of the
team (stake holders), identify limits and
expectations of team's work, agree on roles
and responsibilities, ground rules and
logistics of when and where to meet.
The work of the team is accomplished by
creating work plans, having productive
meetings, using data, making good
decisions, evaluating potential solutions,
implementing changes and documenting its
work.
A team must know when its work is done: it
has accomplished its purpose; took steps
to maintain the gains; completed
documentation of actions, results, and ideas for future
improvements; evaluated work, shared
results with others; recognized everyone's
contributions and celebrated achievements.
Successful teams also must master potential
problems: 1, the area of conflict - some
people fight over everything; 2, power -
the boss is on the team and people don't
speak openly; 3, correct use of experts -
who speak clearly and don't dominate; 4,
focus - people stay on the subject; 5,
participation - all participate in an equal fashion;
6, follow-through - everyone does his or
her assignments.
·
The
Seven Quality Control Tools (7QC)
In the 1950's the Japanese began
to learn and apply the statistical quality control tools and thinking
that Walter Shewhart and W.
Edward Deming developed in the 1930's and 1940's. Their progress
in Continuous Improvement led to
the expansion of the use of these tools. Kaoru Ishikawa, head of
the Japanese Union of Scientists
and Engineers (J.U.S.E.) expanded the use of these approaches in
Japanese manufacturing in the
1960's with the introduction of the 7 Quality Control (7QC) tools.
Cause and Effect Diagram
The cause and effect diagram is also called
the fishbone chart because of its
appearance and the Ishakowa chart after the
man who popularized its use in
Japan. Its most frequent use is to list the
cause of particular problems. The
lines coming off the core horizontal line
are the main causes and the lines coming off
those are sub causes.
Run Chart
The run chart shows the history and pattern
of variation. It is helpful to
indicate on the chart whether up is good or
down is good. This tool is used at
the beginning of the change process to see
what the problems are. It is used
at the end (check) part of the change
process to see whether the change has resulted in
a permanent improvement.
Scatter Diagram
The scatter diagram show the pattern of
relationship between to variables that
are thought to be related. For example is
their a relationship between out side
temperature and cases of the common cold?
As temperatures drop, do colds
increase. The closer the points hug a
diagonal line the more closely there is a one to one
relationship.
Flowchart
The flowchart lists the order of
activities. The circle symbol indicates the
beginning or end of the process. The box
indicates action items and the
diamond indicates decision points. A
beneficial technique is to map the ideal
process and the actual process and identify
the differences as targets for improvements.
Pareto Chart
The Pareto shows the distribution of items
and arranges them from the most
frequent to the least frequent with the
final bar being misc. The tool is named
after Wilfredo Pareto, the Italian
economist who determined that wealth is not
evenly distributed. Some of the people have
most of the money. This tool is a graphical
picture of the most frequent causes of a
particular problem. It shows where to put your
initial effort to get the most gain.
Histogram
The histogram is a bar chart showing a
distribution of variables. An example
would be to line up by height a group of
people in a course. Normally one
would be the tallest and one would be the
shortest and there would be a
cluster of people around an average height.
Hence the phrase "normal distribution".
This tool helps identify the cause of
problems in a process by the shape of the
distribution as well as the width of the
distribution.
Control Chart
The control chart is a line chart with
control limits. It is based on the work of
Shewhart and Deming. By mathematically
constructing control limits at 3
standard deviations above and below the
average, one can determine what
variation is due to normal ongoing causes
(common causes) and what variation is
produced by unique events (special causes).
By eliminating the special causes first and
then reducing common causes, quality can be
improved.
2.
Planning
Once most employees have mastered the first
phase of work improvement, then the
organization is ready to move into
organization wide planning. This to is a
plan-do-check-act process as indicated in
the following diagram.
Under the new paradigm planning involves
all managers in the organization not just the
top people. Plans at all levels are aligned
by a process of catch ball. This means that
plans are communicated and conflicts
between plans are resolved. Plans are being
documented. They are not just a once a year
project put on the shelf to collect dust.
Also, each manager monitors his or her plan
on a monthly basis and studies successes
and problems to make the changes in
behavior that will help assure the plan will be met
and exceeded.
Step 1 - 5-10 year plan. The strategic plan
is important for defense conversion. When
one surveys the markets to check competing
product it is important to design not to
compete with existing product but with the
products competition will be producing 3-5
years from now. The lines of evolution as
part of systematic innovation (or TRIZ)8 are
a key to examining how technologies will
evolve.
One of the lines of evolution is the S
curve. Products develop very quickly at first, then
the number of changes slow indicating the
need for a major break through in the
product. Another line of evolution is the
mono-poly cycle. Products diverge then get
grouped together. An example is the knife.
Two knives are combined to form scissors.
Different size knives are made for
different functions. Eventually these get combined
into a Swiss army knife.
Another line of evolution is increasing
dynamism. An example is in bicycles when they
shifted from a rigid direct drive to
flexible bicycle chain. Uneven development of parts
shows where the weak link is in the system
and where the next product break through
needs to come. Other lines of evaluations
have included the conversion from macro to
micro and automation.
A sound understanding of customer values is
also important for strategic planning. A
customer may be able to articulate what
they want today or tomorrow, but they cannot
tell you what will be exciting products 3-5
years from now. To define these products
one must find the values that underlay
today's requirements. Then these must be pushed
up
against what is possible to come up with next year's exciting quality.
For example, people want convenience in
using the telephone information services, you
need to have a paper and pencil to write
down the number. Today you can push "1" on
some information services and the phone
will automatically dial the number requested
for a nominal fee. Really exciting quality
might be to prrovide the service at no extra
fee!
Step 2: 3-5 Year Plan
Once the vision is established, then the
3-5 year project plan must be developed. The
purpose of this is to do detailed up front
planning. This step if done properly will
dramatically reduce the cost of defense
conversion and enhance its likelihood of
success. The Bible on project planning is
called PMBOK which is short for Project
Management Body of Knowledge.*
Step 3: One Year Plan. The one year plan
includes the targets, means, and measures
that each manager will work on that year.
Typically each manager has six to eight target
areas. Half of these are related to the
managers participation in the strategic plan and
half are related to the critical processes
of the persons regular job. All must be
measurable with monthly numerical targets.
Step 4: Deployment of Plan. All workers are
expected to be involved in the continuous
improvement and standardization of their
activities. Each employee should support his
or her bosses activity. The means of each
boss often become the targets for
subordinates. Even in the case of
self-directed teams in Quality Control Circles, strong
effects are made to understand and support
the initiatives of the organization.
Step 5: Execution of Plan. During the year
the plan is to be carried out by each
manager. Key inhibitors to progress are
controlled with standardization and improved
with continuous improvement as outlined in
phase one (that is one reason why
knowledge and skill in daily improvement is
a prerequisite to phase two.)
Step 6: Monthly Review of Plan
A check sheet can be used to gather data on
frequency. This can be portrayed on a
pareto chart listing the causes from the
most prominent to least frequent in a bar chart
format. This can provide a guide for
action. Such a methodology for regular checking
will assure continuously improving quality
and reducing cost.
Step 7: Annual Review. These monthly
reviews are folded together in an annual review.
The annual review lists the successes and
failures and analysis from the various monthly
reports.
The annual review also focuses heavily on
the planning process. What contributed to
effective planning? What detracted from
effective planning?
Also part of new paradigm for planning is
the President's annual review. The President
meets with a sampling of groups that had
planning success as well as those who had
problems. It is an example of seeing how
things are going in the work place.
In summary, phase two makes it possible for
organizations to take the continuous
improvement and standardization capability
of phase one and apply them to a focused
improvement area. Hewlett Packard for
example used this methodology to reduce its
time to market and to gain advantage in
their laser technology products.
·
The
Seven Management and Planning Tools
In the early 1970's as Total Quality
Control expanded to service and administrative
areas, it became clear that the 7QC tools
were not always appropriate, so the seven
new tools were developed under the
leadership of Nyatanni. These tools are
particularly helpful in improving planning.
Affinity Diagram
The Affinity Diagram is a tool for
organizing language data. After ideas are
brainstormed and written on cards, they are
grouped together with similar
ideas. A header card is created which
captures the meaning of each group of
ideas. This is a creative, right brain,
activity.
Interrelationship Digraph
The interrelationship digraph shows the
relationships between items by
drawing an arrow from one idea that causes
another idea to an idea that is the
result. Sometimes the arrow is drawn from
one action that occurs before
another action. The items that have mostly
arrows going in are long range targets and
the items that most arrows going out are
initial action items
Tree Diagram
The tree diagram takes a purpose and
logically breaks it into action items. As
you read from left to right it goes in a
logical progression from general to
specific. If you read the chart from left
to right, it answers the question "how
accomplished?" If you read it from
right to left, it answers the question "why?"
Matrix Diagram
The matrix diagram shows the relationship
between two or more sets of
items. It can be very useful in
facilitating an analysis of the relationship of each
item in one set to all items in the other
set. This often triggers some thinking
that would not have happened if this
organized approach was not used. It is also helpful
to see patterns of relationships. Which
items don't relate to anything and which ones are
heavy hitters.
Prioritization Matrices
The prioritization matrix enables the
selection of priority items by applying a
set of criteria to each item. Sometimes the
list of criteria is fairly simple. Other
times it is weighted with a great deal of
precision (eg. the Analytical Hierarchy
Process-AHP).
Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC)
The process decision program chard (PDPC)
is a tool for contingency
planning. It begins by listing the steps in
a particular activity. It then lists what
could go wrong at each step and finally it
lists the counter measures for things
that can go wrong. Sometimes it is drawn in
the flow chart format below. Other times it
is arranges as a numerical tree diagram.
Activity Network Diagram
The activity network diagram is a
simplified version of PERT (Program
evaluation and review technique). It is a
method for mapping out the
sequence in which activities will be
undertaken. One of its benefits is that it
indicates which items can be done
simultaneously. Another benefit is that it makes it
clear what set of activities will take the
longest and where time efficiencies can be
achieved.
3
.Cross Functional Management
Phase three takes the processes of phase
one and two and applies them to multiple
areas. The most frequent areas of focus are
quality, cost, delivery and employee
morale. The most widely used application in
the United States is Quality Function
Deployment (QFD).
·
Quality
Function Deployment
Quality Function Deployment has four
states. Phase one, gathers the voice of the
customer, puts it words accurately
understood by producing organization and analyzes
it versus the capability and strategic
plans of the organizations. Phase 2, identifies the
area of priority break through that will
result in dramatic growth in market share for the
producer. Phase 3, represents the break
through to new technology. This is the area
that has seen the largest growth in the
last few years with the discovery of the Russian
TRIZ approach to inventive problem solving
(see below) Phase 4, represents the
production of the new product and new
technology at the highest possible quality
standards.
The following is one of the classic QFD
examples. In the early 1980's International
Harvester and Komatsu ended a partnering
relationship. Since International Harvester
had owned all the patents, Komatsu had to
develop eleven new heavy equipment
models in the short period of twenty-four
months.
Komatsu engineers went out to the field to
watch and observe the actual use of the
equipment. They observed the discomfort and
toil of the operator. As they studied this
it became clear that two improvement areas
might be the comfort of the driver in the
cab and reducing the effort to shift the
vehicle, since it was constantly going back and
forth.
In the case of the cab, Komatsu engineers
reworked the window structure so there
was a clearer view in view in all
directions. They put in air conditioning that would stand
up in a dusty environment. They made a seat
that was comfortable to sit in for long
periods of time. In the case of the
shifting they looked into electronic shifting. They
considered twelve different approaches.
After considerable testing, they chose the one
that would be the most reliable and easy to
use.
When Komatsu introduced its new line of
heavy trucks, it was met with great
enthusiasm. Because of its ease of use it
led to higher productivity and driver
preference. Soon Komatsu became a dominant
force in the heavy truck business, a
position it maintained for over a decade.
·
Individuals
and Teams Roles and Responsibilities
Problem
re-definition can be aided by what is called heuristic redefinition. One draws a
picture of the
problem and identifies the
different parts of the system. A prioritization matrix is used to select the
one or two ways of looking at the
problems that are most likely to succeed. Other methods of
problem redefinition include
Gerry Nadler's purpose hierarchy, the product cycle S-curve and the
technological evolution of TRIZ.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is the tool
for gathering ideas from a team of people. The process is improved by
having a mix of people of
different backgrounds and also by having people with backgrounds in the
area where the solution is most
likely to be found. It is important to let the process go on through at
least three lulls in the
conversation. Some of the best ideas only come after thought.
Brainwriting
Brainwriting is a method of
stimulating new ideas by writing them down. This may be used to gather
ideas from a team of six people.
each person writes three ideas and passes it to the person on their
right. They read these and add
three more ideas that are triggered by the preceding ideas. This
continues around the circle until
each person gets back their original paper. This silent approach
permits more thoughtfulness than
what usually happens in brainstorming.
Another way of visualizing ideas
is through mapping the ideas and connected related ideas with a
line.
Creative Brainstorming
Creative brainstorming is a
way of stimulating idea generation by changing one element in a
brainstorm definition and then
generating more ideas and applying these new ideas back to the
original idea. For example a
group may brainstorm the issue of how to get employees comfortable
using the internet. The second
(Imaginary) brainstorm may be how to get employees to wear
cardboard noses. The results of
the second brainstorm may then be applied to the first brainstorm to
see which are applicable.
Word and Picture Association
New ideas can be generated
by pictures, words or inventions. A group can look at pictures held in
the hand or projected on the wall
and asked what ideas it stimulates. Words from lists or dictionaries
can be used to trigger ideas on a
particular problem. The contradiction matrix of TRIZ can be used
to stimulate ideas by simple
analogy from inventions that share similar principles to the problem that
is being worked on.
Advanced Analogies
TILMAG or advanced
analogies are a methodology for gathering ideas by looking for examples of
how people have solved similar
problems. One begins by defining the parameters of the ideal
solution. These parameters are
paired and examples of those pair parameters are generated. The
principle underlying that item
are then applied by analogy to the existing problem.
Morphological Chart
The morphological chart is
a systematic search for all possible solutions to the problem. It begins by
defining the parameters of the
solution. Each parameter is to be mutually exclusive. Then all the
mutually exclusive options are
identified for each parameter. Possible solutions to the problem are
reached by putting together one
option from each parameter. The most appealing solutions are then
refined as possible solutions.
Here are some brief
comments on TQM FAQ's I get.
Most of my materials are in
"consultant" notes. That is why I am developing the web material you
have spotted. For your immediate
need, however, perhaps these personal observations can be
helpful.
Do you have further
information on how we decide our approach to TQM?
My experience has shown
basically three approaches to establishing TQM systems in organizations.
One and two are recommended. The
third is not. You will gather different types of information and
utilize different levels of third
party assistance for both approaches one and two. I will be brief.
Approach One:
This is your first option of what I call
the INTEGRATIVE APPROACH. TQM can be
approached as a "concept of
management" that fine-tunes and revitalizes management in
producing bottom-line products or services
resulting in customer satisfaction (and the almighty
profits or market acceptance needed to
remain competitive or a service provider). In this case
management and individuals of the
organization are usually operating fairly effectively and
TQM becomes the "accepted
advantage" in beating competition for customer dollars,
loyalties, approval, etc. I have found that
most organizations have 70+ percent of all they need
for a TQM and often don't need an
externally designed program. Successful TQM
implementation can be done internally
without much external help. Here you are changing
behaviors and the culture is very
supportive.
Approach Two:
This is your second option of what I call
the INTEGRATIVE APPROACH. TQM can also
be approached as a "system of
management" that provides processes and competencies
currently lacking and needed by management.
Bringing in a well developed system is
important where quality skills are missing
or new approaches (sometimes attitudes) are
necessary. The TQM's role in this instance
is much greater, as it must "bring-up-to-speed" the
individuals and systems in the organization
in areas essential to healthy TQM. These are often
basic areas like conflict resolution,
decision making, and meeting management, as well as in
traditional areas of measurement and
continuous learning. In these cases, companies benefit
from well designed "TQM
Initiatives" that have all the external power for "changing culture to
a supportive role" while getting the
necessary immediate behavioral changes needed for quality
performance and expense justification.
Part of my perspective on this in my
curriculum of "CORE SUPERVISOR SKILLS" on the
net: http://www.skyenet.net/~leg/suptrn.htm
These were developed as part of a highly
adaptable system I call Q.-S.T.E.P. , which
simplifies quality into five basic competencies.
(Q.uality Performance - S.kill
Maximization; T.eam Participation; E.xcellence for Customers;
P.revention of Waste). They work with
existing culture and take advantage of current "good
practices."
In both approaches one and two, TQM's can
usually be accepted by the company culture
and eventual implementation will be
successful. I believe statistics show that about 20% of all
TQM's find some satisfactory way to enter
company cultures and succeed. My experience
tells me it is through one or a combination
of these first two approaches that they find success.
They find a way to blend both bottom-line
organizational realities with individual human
realities into a unique set of quality
beliefs and actions (realities). Needed behavior is changed,
but is also supported with a healthy change
in culture.
Approach Three:
I often call this the TRADITIONAL
MANAGEMENT APPROACH. This is the most
common approach, and is also the cause of
most failures. "Overlay or Forced Injection" of
TQM system(s) and processes onto (or into)
existing cultures without negotiating with or
gaining commitment to their impact on
individual's lives. This approach often sees TQM as a
technical process. It usually aims mainly
at changing behavior (which can be commended in
itself). It does not, however, change
culture that drives or supports that behavior change. Thus
the changes are tolerated, but quickly
abandoned when money runs out or a new idea comes
along.
The principle reason for this limited
behavioral focus is quite simple to understand - TIME
(which translates to money). TQM's are
usually implemented with third party assistance
(expensive but needed for change agentry).
Behavioral change alone can be affected within
weeks and months (with reasonable dollars
expended). Sustainable culture change takes a
minimum of three years after benchmarking and often seven
years before total impact is seen
(big dollars and a test of commitment by
ownership). The real answer is in affecting both
(using internal and external change agents,
projecting immediate benefits and long term
commitment, etc.)
What are the basic principles in
a TQM?
A successful TQM must
balance realites of organization (OD) and human resources development
(HRD) in achieving quality
objectives. Organizational principles are found in the technical aspects of
TQM's (charting, requirements,
measurements, procedures, etc.) Human principles are less
articulated and found in the
communicaton side of TQM (processes, meetings, decision making,
teams, etc.) The TQM must
understand and balance the skills needed to blend them together.
Beware of TQM's that do not
address principles of both OD and HRD.
What are the basic objectives of
a TQM?
The same as any good
management system: Customer Satisfaction. (External Customer loyalty and
purchases. Internal Customer
commitment and outputs.)
What role does TQM play for
sales managers?
This is often a missing link, as
sales management can sometimes be seen as "less important" than
operations or financial managment.
The same is true in government or not-for-profit organizations
with public relations aspects of
managerial roles. My experience has shown that sales managment is
key in several areas: 1)
Listening to the customer. 2) Translating customer demands/wants to
engineering or designers. 3)
Telling the truth (bad news can be blocked if sales is shy or in fear of
pleasing their superiors). 4)
Controling expectations of customers (ie. not promising undeliverable
features or dates). Good TQM
systems can give sales managers (or PR managers) increased input
and opportunities to share with
other managers "market/customer realities." TQM can place the
focus upon "sharpening"
an understanding of customer requriements. Methods that include
"listening"
as well as "presenting"
can result.